About the Authors: Dr. Janet Logan Schieffer is an Assistant Professor of Counseling in the Counseling and Psychology in Education Division at the University of South Dakota, Vermillion, SD. She is the Coordinator of School Counseling Practicum at the University of South Dakota and holds licensure as a Nationally Certified Counselor (NCC), Licensed Professional Counselor (LPC), and a registered Play Therapist Supervisor (RPT-S). She can be reached at jlogan@usd.edu.  Dr. David J. Schieffer is an Assistant Professor of School Psychology in the Counseling and Psychology in Education Division at the University of South Dakota in Vermillion, SD.  He can be reached at dschieff@usd.edu.

Introduction

Part of our job as educators is to find effective ways of helping children and adolescents ease through the difficult passages in their academic and personal lives (Oaklander, 1988).  The ability of students to problem solve is among the primary prevention strategies that can be taught to children and adolescents (Capuzzi & Gross, 2000).  Teaching children and adolescents how to resolve problematic academic and personal situations may help them enhance self-respect and self-esteem, overcome feelings of helplessness, and promote a generalized sense of capability.  Problem solving skills may assist students in developing social competence, autonomy, and a belief in their own ability.  Solution-focused approaches to problem solving promote resiliency because they are committed to fostering students' strengths.  Solution-focused problem solving shifts away from emphasizing problems and toward helping students discover the considerable power and possibilities they have in themselves (De Jong & Berg, 1998).

The purpose of this article is to provide educators with a step-by-step problem-solving process that may be useful for working with children and adolescents in grades K-12.  This article describes a problem-solving process derived from de Shazer's (1994) Solution Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT).  This solution-focused problem-solving process assists children and adolescents to make positive behavioral changes in their lives.  The solution-focused problem-solving process focuses on (1) what students are doing that seems to be helpful, (2) how students can identify the essence of their goal (Woodward, 2000) so the goal is specific and concrete, and (3) how students can make and implement plans for accomplishing the goal.  The solution-focused problem-solving perspective emphasizes that children and adolescents can become stuck by focusing on their past and current “bad” behavior and failures versus focusing on future solutions.  How does focusing on future solutions assist children and adolescents to make effective behavioral changes?

Rationale

Woodward (2000) stated that an important issue for schools to address when selecting or creating interventions is to find interventions that will increase student performance by removing obstacles to student learning.  The words from the old song "Accentuate the Positive, Eliminate the Negative, and Say No to Mr. In Between" captures the essence of a solution-focused approach to problem-solving (Thompson & Rudolph, 2000).  In other words, children and adolescents accomplish more when they concentrate on their successes and strengths rather than their failures and deficits.  The focus is on “what” the child or adolescent is doing that seems to be helpful and to set goals with plans on how to accomplish the “what.”

Many advantages are present for students who can constructively problem solve.  The solution-focused problem-solving method is based on the following concepts about the nature of students (Thompson & Rudolph, 2000, p. 120):

1. Students are viewed as being basically good, capable of rational thought, and free to make choices.  However, without direction from the teacher, and other significant adults in their lives, children may continue to focus on the negative aspects of their lives.
2. Once the teacher shifts to the positive, i.e., what is going well in the students' lives, students will prefer to talk about what is going well in their lives.
3. Students have the capacity to act on common sense if given the opportunity to identify common sense problem-solving strategies.
4. Students respond better to learning when they make positive changes in their behavior as opposed to working on the cognitive and affective components of their situation.  For students who may have difficulty in handling some of the abstract thinking involved in cognitive and affective interventions, the behavior change focus is most useful.
5. Students will respond better to a present and future orientation than they will a past orientation focused on why they have a problem they cannot solve.

The solution-focused method of problem solving uses the 4-H motto: “Make the best better” (Thompson & Rudolph, 2000).  By focusing on exceptions, the educator explores and reinforces the times when the problem was not present.  Solutions are a natural outgrowth of the times when the problem was not present.  Every problem is viewed as having identifiable exceptions that can be transformed into solutions (Thompson & Rudolph, 2000).  For example, a shy child who is having trouble making friends in her classroom might be asked to look at times when she was able to make some friends (exceptions).  The shy child might be able to say, “I asked Mary to play with me on the playground and that felt good.”  Then the teacher would build on that by asking how that happened (each step) and how the child could make it happen more often (solutions).  By eliciting and constructing the exceptions to the problem and encouraging the exceptions to occur more often, the educator invites students to develop a sense of control over what had seemed to be an insurmountable problem for the student.  Thus problems come to be viewed as exceptions that can be transformed into solutions.

Solution-focused problem solving is based on the theory that small changes in behavior lead to bigger changes in behavior.  For example, Jason might be asked to complete a small portion of his math assignment rather than the entire assignment, based on the theory that he needs encouragement and success to become “unstuck.”  Solution-focused problem solving emphasizes a role shift for students.  Small shifts in role by a student (e.g., completing an assignment) will cause shifts in other places.  For example, Jason is not turning in homework. Jason's parents nag; the teacher nags; Jason earns bad grades; Jason gives up and misbehaves.  Solution-focused problem-solving goals must be stated in positive and observable terms if they are to be effective. Students, such as Jason, do better in attaining goals that are quantifiable and specific.  The goal of “completing one homework assignment per day” is far superior to the goal “study harder”--especially, when Jason has only been handing in a few assignments.  The goal must be stated positively: “I will complete one assignment per day,” versus “I will not watch TV or play with my friends after school.”

Description of Solution-Focused Problem Solving

Bruce (1995) identified the following four main components of solution-focused problem solving:

1. Development of a working alliance in which the teacher and child work together in attacking the problem and its causes
2. Identification of the students' strengths as foundations on which to build confidence in their abilities to make positive changes in their lives.
3. Implementation of active, diverse strategies and interventions, including role-playing, artwork, homework assignments, interpretations, visualization, and reframing to help children and adolescents achieve their goals.
4. Establishment of clear, concrete, measurable goals that serve to help the teacher and students evaluate their progress.

Solution-focused problem solving capitalizes on creating concrete images or word pictures to describe the problem and problem setting.  Students are directed to describe precisely what occurs, who is present, and what is said and done. Bruce (1995) identified four useful intervention tasks for this process:

1. “Do something different” for the student who tends to repeat the same ineffective reaction in problem situations.
2. “Pay attention to what you do when you overcome the urge to…” for the student who has trouble controlling impulsive behaviors.
3. “Tell me about a time when you had a good day at school” for students who report that nothing good ever happens at school.
4. “Observe and take notes” for students who have difficulty avoiding problem situations and interactions.  The student has a role shift from interactor to observer and may benefit from this different perspective.

Steps in the Solution-Focused Problem Solving Process

Littrell (1998), Sklare (1997), and Cade and O'Hanlon (1993) have outlined various solution-focused problem-solving steps based on de Shazer's SFBT (1988; 1994) and rooted in the work of Watzlawick, Weakland, and Fisch (1974).  The steps included in the solution-focused problem-solving process have been adapted from their work and may include:

1. An orientation statement.  The educator orients students to the solution-focused problem solving process via a statement such as, “Our purpose will be to help you learn a problem-solving process so you will know what you need to do to find solutions to a problem.  The orientation statement asks students two things: “What do you need to do to get what you want?” and “What are you doing well?”
2. Statement of the problem.  The educator assists students to understand what the problem is.  The educator uses active listening skills and remains nonjudgmental and accepting of the students' ideas.  The educator helps students clarify the problem through four important steps.  These steps are (a) identifying the problem; (b) identifying the feelings associated with the problem; (c) rating the intensity of those feelings on a 1 (low) to 10 (high) scale; and (d) stating the students' expectations of what they would like to have happen and the goals they wish to accomplish with regard to the problem.  The problem must be defined as clearly as possible and must be stated as a goal to be achieved.  It may be useful for some students to discuss what a problem is and whose problem it is (e.g., Is it the student's problem?).  These four steps will assist students to clarify their goal(s).  The ratings on a 1 to 10 point scale can be useful in helping students decide how important the goal is to them.
3. Goal setting.  First, the goal must be the student's goal and established by the student.  The goals of parents, teachers, administrators, and other adults in the student's life do not tend to result in a student's commitment to change.  For example, if the student is not completing school assignments, the student needs to decide on a goal that is something the student wants.  That goal may be that the student wants to be able resume playing with friends after school.  In this example, the student must stay home and complete school assignments until the student's grades improve.  Second, the goal must be behavioral, positive, concrete, and reduced to small steps, so the student is successful.  Third, the goal must be stated in terms of the behavior that will occur, how often it will occur, and under what conditions it will occur.
4. de Shazer (1988) recommended that goal setting needs to begin by asking students to think about the good things rather than the bad things that have been happening in their lives.  For example, “I would like to have you think about your life recently and the things that have happened to you that you would like to have happen more often in the future.”  Or “Please think about what you would like to get done, and how you will know if what you are doing is helping.”
5. Identify progress toward the goal on a 10-point scale  The educator may ask the student on a scale of 1 to 10 how important it is to accomplish or complete the goal.  Imagine the student Jason who wants to be permitted by his parents to play with his friends after school.  In order to complete his goal, he must complete school assignments.  When the educator asks Jason how important it is to play with his friends, Jason answers, “9.”  Next, the educator would ask Jason where he is now on the 10-point scale.  The educator would then ask Jason how close to a 9 he is.  Imagine that Jason says, “5.”  The educator would next ask Jason what he would need to do to move from a 5 to a 6, and then to a 7 and eventually to a 9 on a 10-point scale.
6. Ask the miracle question to formulate/clarify goals.  The educator may ask, “If a miracle happened overnight and your problem were solved, what would you be doing differently?” and “What else would be different after the miracle?”  For younger children, the educator may want to pose the question in magic terms (Sklare, 1997).  For example, “If I were to wave a magic wand or rub a magic lamp and wish all your problems away, what would we see you doing if we could videotape you for one day?”
7. Ask the relationship question.  The educator may want students to clarify the following: “Who would be the first to notice the difference in your behavior?”  “How would they respond to you?”  “How would you respond to them?”  Relationship questions assist students in understanding who is most affected by their behavior and what students' thoughts and feelings are about that person(s).
8. Ask about exceptions to the problem.  The educator wants to find out about times when the problem was not occurring or when some of the miracle had already happened, even just a little bit.  The idea is that students already possess many of the necessary skills to change their behavior, as in the example of Jason having finished some of his schoolwork.
9. Reinforce the exceptions to the problem.  Since the educator wants to point out and reinforce the students' strengths and abilities to create change, the educator will want to ask students how they can make the exceptions happen more often.
10. Use positive blame.  The educator may ask, “How in the world did you manage to make that happen?”  This question shifts students' attention to themselves as an active agent in the change process.  Students begin to assume ownership of their accomplishments and their part in the change process and feel proud that they have the ability to find and use solutions.
11. Return to the 10-point scaling question.  The educator will want to find out where students currently are in solving their problem.  The educator will want to ask students where they were last week on a scale of 1 to 10 and where they are this week.  The educator remains neutral and does not punish or judge.  If students did not make movement on the 1 to 10 point scale, the educator may wish to ask what happened that the students were not able to accomplish their goal.  If the goal is not something students really want, then students may need to establish another goal.
12. Staying stuck.  It is important to ask students what might prevent them from moving to the next level and what can be done to prevent that from happening.  An educator may wish to ask students to imagine that they will never change, that they will always be just like they are now, and what that would be like for them.  Hopefully, this intervention permits students to see that it is impossible not to change, and they can do something about directing the change process.
13. Use good news:  The educator writes the student a note that assists him or her in learning how actions are tied to positive consequences.  The educator writes the note in the form of a compliment.  First, the compliment needs to bridge the student's goals to the positive outcome that will result when the goal is reached.  Second, the compliment describes what students need to do in order to raise the 10-point scale score by 10% (i.e., the student moves from a 5 to a 6 by completing the task).  For example, a note for Jason may read, “I think you were really creative and smart (compliment) to come up with some good ways to complete your school assignments (goal), so your parents will let you play with your friends after school (bridges action to positive outcome).  You figured out a good way to stay out of trouble by deciding to have your desk moved to the front of the class and an even better way to raise your grades (compliment; the goal is specific and concrete).  Because of your actions that you are going to take at school, I suggest that you let your parents know that you have moved your desk and tell them why you have done this.”  Thus, students are given ownership for their solutions and the positive outcomes.  Also, by having Jason tell his parents about his decision, Jason further commits to his goal.  Through the good news process, both the child and the parents refocus on Jason's capabilities, potentials, and assets versus his deficits and liabilities.
14. Draw a picture. Sklare (1997) recommends that students draw pictures of their miracles showing what will be happening when the miracle occurs.

Case Illustration

One of the examples provided throughout the article was of Jason who was not permitted to play with his friends after school because of his failing grades.  The following illustrates examples of Jason's use of the solution-focused problem solving process:

Jason's Goals

1. Wants to play with friends after school.
2. Wants to raise grades from Ds and Cs to Cs and Bs.

1. I would be staying in my seat and doing my schoolwork.
2. My grades would be Cs and Bs.
3. My parents would be happy, so I could play with my friends after school.

First sign(s) the miracle happened (a little bit).

1. I would be completing all of my math assignments, and my teacher would notice and smile at me.
2. I would be listening to the teacher during class in my new front row seat.

1. I had a B in math last report card.
2. I had all Bs last year.

10-Point Scaling

1. I only had to go to time out once a day instead of three times a day this week

Conclusion

Solution-focused problem solving relentlessly pursues the positive (Thompson & Rudolph, 2000).  Students are more likely to find a solution to a problem when they concentrate on their successes rather than their failures.  Students learn that they are active agents in the problem-solving process and that change is not only possible but also inevitable.  Since students are provided with a problem solving process that assists them in finding solutions to their problems, they are able to create alternative views and experiences.  The new experiences help students understand on a very concrete level that things in their lives can be different.  Students generate goals that are concrete and behavioral through such strategies as the miracle question.  Students continually evaluate their progress to see where they are in reaching their goal via scaling questions.  The scaling questions assist students to see how they can make small changes; a consequent role shift may occur as students generate solutions to their problems.  The viewing of the situation that is perceived as problematic is changed.  This inclination toward solutions, competence, and capabilities provides students with concrete, positive skills; students do not become hopelessly labeled as the “problem” that they are having.  As educators continue to collaborate with students to find exceptions to problems and explore the times when the problem was not present, students are encouraged to make the exceptions occur more often.

Educators may use solution-focused problem solving skills with individual students, classes, or on a school-wide basis.  The Behavior System Assessment for Children (BASC) (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1998) and the Piers-Harris Self Concept Inventory (Piers, 1984) are inventories that may be helpful for assessing the effectiveness of solution-focused problem-solving strategies school-wide.  By being optimistic and solution oriented, educators can help to supply the tools students need in developing their skills.  A Greek philosopher once said, “You can't step into the same river twice.”  It is important for educators to convey their surprise to children and adolescents if the students' problems were to persist.  With the solution-focused problem-solving process, children and adolescents are learning a process that will assist them to navigate the rivers of their academic and personal lives—with the help of a life jacket.

References

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